In the 13th century, the great Mongol hordes under Genghis Khan brought all of China under their control. Under Kublai Khan (1279-94), first ruler of the Mongols’ Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368), the Grand Canal was completed and a system of relay stations assured safe travel. European merchants, notably Marco Polo, and missionaries reached the Mongol capital of Khan Buluc, on the site of present-day Beijing. The novel and the drama received substantial impetus under the Mongols.

After a long period of unrest, Mongol rule was succeeded by the native Chinese Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), which established its capita! at Nanjing. During the reign of Cheng Zu (1403-24), the zenith of the Ming empire, the capital was moved to Beijing. In this period, China’s contacts with the West began to expand: the Portuguese reached China in 1516,the Spanish in 1557, the Dutch in 1606, and the English in 1637. The Ming Dynasty was overthrown by the Manchus, non-Chinese invaders from the northeast, who established the last imperial dynasty, the Qing (1644-1911).

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